Context:
On September 20th, 2024, we commemorate the centenary of the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, initially announced by archaeologist Sir John Marshall on the same date in 1924. The civilization is noted for its extensive spread across 1.5 million square kilometers in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, encompassing over 2,000 archaeological sites.
Relevance:
GS I: Culture
Dimensions of the Article:
- Overview of Harappan Civilization
- Key Features of Harappan Civilization
Overview of Harappan Civilization
- Also Known As: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)
- Flourished: Around 2500 BCE along the Indus River
- Global Significance: Largest of the four major ancient urban civilizations, alongside Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China
- Technology: Known as a Bronze Age civilization due to the discovery of copper-based alloy artifacts
Key Archaeological Discoveries
- First Excavations:
- Harappa: Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921-22
- Mohenjo-daro: Excavated by Rakhal Das Banerji in 1922
- Notable Contributor:
- Sir John Marshall, Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), oversaw the excavations that revealed these sites
Phases of Harappan Civilization
- Early Phase (3200 BCE to 2600 BCE):
- Associated with the Hakra Phase, located in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley
- Earliest evidence of Indus script dates to around 3000 BCE
- Mature Period (2600 BCE to 1900 BCE):
- Marked the peak of urbanization with significant growth in cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro (in present-day Pakistan), as well as Lothal (in present-day India)
- Late Phase (1900 BCE to 1500 BCE):
- The civilization experienced a decline, leading to its eventual collapse
Key Features of Harappan Civilization
Town Planning:
- Advanced Town Layout: Harappan cities were designed using a grid-like structure, reflecting highly organized urban planning.
- Citadel or Acropolis: Harappa and Mohenjodaro featured elevated citadels likely for the ruling elite.
- Lower Towns: Below the citadels, there were brick houses for common people.
- Granaries: Large granaries were used to store grains, with the use of burnt bricks, different from the dried bricks used in Egypt.
- Drainage System: Mohenjodaro had an advanced drainage system, with almost every house having courtyards and bathrooms.
- Private Wells: In Kalibangan, many homes had private wells.
- Fortified Settlements: Sites like Dholavira and Lothal in Gujarat were fortified, with sections divided by walls.
Agriculture:
- Highly Productive Villages: Located near floodplains, they produced wheat, barley, peas, sesame, lentils, chickpeas, rai, and mustard.
- Cotton Production: The Harappans were among the first to grow cotton, called “Sindon” by the Greeks.
- Animal Husbandry: This practice was widespread, along with crop cultivation.
Economy:
- Trade Significance: Trade was essential, facilitated by seals, a uniform script, and standardized weights and measures.
- Major Items Traded: Included stone, metal, and shell.
- Barter System: Used for trade, as no metal currency existed.
- Navigation and Trade Routes: Navigation was practiced along the Arabian Sea, and a trading colony in northern Afghanistan facilitated Central Asian commerce.
- Mesopotamian Trade: Engaged in trade with Mesopotamia and long-distance trade in lapis lazuli.
Crafts:
- Bronze Manufacturing: Harappans used copper from Rajasthan (Khetri mines) and tin from Afghanistan.
- Textile and Weaving: Impressions suggest knowledge of weaving.
- Key Crafts: Included boat-making, bead-making, seal-making, terracotta, and pottery.
- Jewelry: Goldsmiths crafted jewelry from gold, silver, and precious stones.
Religion:
- Fertility Worship: Numerous terracotta figurines suggest worship of a fertility goddess.
- Pashupati Seal: A male deity, Pashupati Mahadeva, is depicted surrounded by animals like elephants, tigers, and buffalo.
- Animal and Tree Worship: Symbols like the unicorn (possibly a rhinoceros) and humped bull were significant.
Possible Reasons for Decline:
- Invasion Theory: Some scholars propose Indo-European tribes, like the Aryans, invaded and overthrew the civilization, although cultural continuity challenges this idea.
- Environmental Changes: Earthquakes may have altered rivers, and monsoon pattern shifts could have impacted agriculture, leading to food shortages and eventual decline.
-Source: The Hindu
